When we talk about Christianity, most people think of a single, unified religion. However, that couldn’t be further from the truth. Christian subgroups exist all over the world, and they each have unique beliefs, traditions, and practices that set them apart from one another. In this article, we will explore just how many Christian subgroups exist today and what distinguishes them from one another.
It’s essential to understand the origins of Christian subgroups to understand how they came to be and why they have such different beliefs. Many of these subgroups began as a result of theological or political differences, while others developed as a result of cultural or ethnic divisions. Despite their differences, many of these subgroups share a common history and can trace their roots back to the earliest days of Christianity.
Whether you’re a devout Christian or simply curious about the different subgroups that exist within this diverse religion, this article will provide you with valuable insights into the fascinating world of Christian subgroups. So buckle up and get ready to explore this complex and multifaceted topic in depth!
Table of Contents
The Origins of Christian Subgroups
Christianity is a diverse religion with various subgroups, each with its own beliefs and practices. Historically, the emergence of Christian subgroups can be traced back to the early days of Christianity when the religion was still taking shape. The earliest Christian subgroups were the result of theological differences among early Christian communities.
The split between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in 1054 CE is an example of how theological differences can lead to the formation of distinct subgroups. Geography has also played a significant role in the development of Christian subgroups. As Christianity spread throughout the world, it encountered different cultures and adapted to them, leading to the formation of new subgroups.
The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century was a significant event that led to the formation of many new Christian subgroups. Martin Luther, a German monk, challenged the Catholic Church’s authority and teachings and started the Protestant movement. This movement led to the formation of various Protestant denominations, including Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican.
Another factor that has contributed to the formation of Christian subgroups is social and political issues. For example, the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s in the United States led to the formation of new Christian subgroups that focused on social justice and equality.
Overall, the origins of Christian subgroups are complex and varied. They are a result of theological, geographical, social, and political factors. Understanding the origins of these subgroups is essential to understanding the diversity of Christianity today.
The Role of the Protestant Reformation in the Emergence of Christian Subgroups
The Protestant Reformation, which began in the early 16th century, played a crucial role in the emergence of Christian subgroups. Reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin sought to reform the Catholic Church, leading to the creation of new denominations such as Lutheranism and Calvinism.
The Reformation also led to the fragmentation of existing denominations, as groups split over issues such as the interpretation of scripture and the role of the clergy. This fragmentation gave rise to new subgroups, such as the Anabaptists and the Quakers.
One of the most significant impacts of the Reformation was the emphasis on individual interpretation of scripture. This emphasis gave rise to a wide range of interpretations and beliefs, which in turn led to the formation of many new subgroups.
- Anabaptists: A subgroup that emerged in the 16th century, known for their belief in adult baptism and rejection of infant baptism.
- Quakers: A group that emerged in the 17th century, known for their emphasis on the “inner light” of the individual and rejection of religious hierarchies.
- Puritans: A subgroup that emerged in the 16th century, known for their emphasis on personal piety and strict adherence to scripture.
- Baptists: A group that emerged in the 17th century, known for their belief in adult baptism and rejection of infant baptism.
- Methodists: A group that emerged in the 18th century, known for their emphasis on the role of personal experience and the possibility of salvation for all.
The Protestant Reformation was a pivotal moment in the history of Christianity, leading to the emergence of new denominations and subgroups that continue to shape the religious landscape today.
The Importance of Theological Differences in the Formation of Christian Subgroups
One of the most important factors in the formation of Christian subgroups is theological differences. These differences can lead to significant disagreements among members of the same faith and can ultimately result in the formation of separate groups. Doctrine is a key element of theology and often serves as the basis for the formation of subgroups.
- The interpretation of scripture: Different interpretations of biblical texts can result in varying theological beliefs among Christians. These differences can lead to the formation of subgroups within the same faith.
- The nature of God: Theological disagreements over the nature of God, such as the Trinity, can also lead to the formation of subgroups.
- Soteriology: Differences in beliefs about salvation and how it is attained can also lead to the formation of subgroups.
- Ecclesiology: Disagreements over the structure and function of the church can also be a factor in the formation of subgroups.
- Morality: Differences in moral beliefs and values can also lead to the formation of subgroups within Christianity.
The importance of theological differences in the formation of Christian subgroups cannot be overstated. These differences have led to the formation of many different subgroups over the centuries and continue to do so today.
The Influence of Cultural and Social Factors on the Development of Christian Subgroups
Geography: The location of a group can greatly impact its beliefs and practices. For instance, the Orthodox Church in Russia is different from the Orthodox Church in Greece due to cultural and historical differences.
Politics: Throughout history, political events have often played a significant role in the development of Christian subgroups. The Protestant Reformation was influenced by political tensions between the Holy Roman Empire and various German states.
Socioeconomic Status: Social and economic factors can also shape the beliefs and practices of Christian groups. For example, liberation theology emerged in Latin America as a response to poverty and social injustice.
Technology: Advances in technology have also influenced the development of Christian subgroups. The printing press allowed for the mass distribution of Bibles, which played a significant role in the Protestant Reformation.
Interfaith Relations: The relationship between different religions and denominations can also influence the development of Christian subgroups. For example, the Catholic Church’s stance on interfaith marriage has led some Catholics to leave the Church and join other Christian denominations.
What Are the Most Prominent Christian Subgroups?
With so many Christian subgroups in existence today, it can be difficult to keep track of them all. Here are some of the most prominent subgroups:
Catholicism: As one of the oldest and largest Christian subgroups, Catholicism has a global following of over one billion people. It is known for its hierarchy and sacramental theology.
Protestantism: Protestants make up a diverse group of Christians who broke away from the Catholic Church during the Reformation. They include denominations such as Lutheranism, Anglicanism, Methodism, and Pentecostalism.
Orthodoxy: This Eastern branch of Christianity has a rich history and theology, and is known for its emphasis on icons and the divine liturgy.
Evangelicalism: Evangelicals prioritize personal faith and a relationship with Jesus Christ. They are known for their emphasis on the Bible, evangelism, and social conservatism.
Non-denominational: Non-denominational churches are not affiliated with any specific denomination, and often emphasize a more casual worship style and community involvement.
Orthodox Christianity
Origins: Orthodox Christianity traces its origins back to the apostolic era and has its roots in the Eastern Christian tradition.
Beliefs: Orthodox Christians believe in the Holy Trinity, the divinity of Jesus Christ, and the importance of sacraments in achieving salvation.
Practices: Orthodox Christians practice liturgical worship, including the use of icons, and place a strong emphasis on fasting and prayer.
Geographic Distribution: The majority of Orthodox Christians live in Eastern Europe, Russia, the Middle East, and Africa.
Denominations: There are a number of autocephalous (self-governing) Orthodox churches, such as the Greek Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church, and Serbian Orthodox Church.
Catholicism
Catholicism is the largest Christian subgroup, with more than 1.3 billion followers worldwide. The Catholic Church is headed by the Pope, who is considered the spiritual leader of all Catholics. The Catholic Church has a hierarchical structure, with the Pope at the top, followed by cardinals, bishops, and priests.
Catholicism has many unique practices and beliefs, including the use of sacraments, devotion to Mary and the saints, and the doctrine of transubstantiation, which holds that the bread and wine used in the Eucharist become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Catholics also place great emphasis on social justice and are involved in numerous charitable organizations and initiatives.
Despite being a single, unified organization, there are differences in Catholic practices and beliefs across different regions and cultures. For example, the Catholic Church in Latin America has a unique blend of indigenous, African, and European influences that distinguish it from the Church in Europe or North America.
Protestantism
The Lutherans: The Lutheran Church is one of the oldest Protestant denominations. It is based on the teachings of Martin Luther, a German monk and theologian who was excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century. Today, there are over 70 million Lutherans worldwide.
The Baptists: Baptists are a diverse group of Christians who share the belief in adult baptism by immersion, rather than infant baptism. There are numerous Baptist denominations, with over 100 million members worldwide. Baptist beliefs include the importance of personal conversion, the authority of the Bible, and the autonomy of the local church.
The Methodists: The Methodist Church is a denomination that is based on the teachings of John Wesley, an Anglican priest who founded the movement in the 18th century. Methodists emphasize the importance of personal faith, the need for social justice, and the role of the Holy Spirit in the lives of believers. There are around 80 million Methodists worldwide.
The Pentecostals: Pentecostalism is a movement that emphasizes the experience of the Holy Spirit, including speaking in tongues and healing. It originated in the early 20th century and has since spread to become one of the largest and fastest-growing Christian movements in the world, with over 280 million followers.
The Anglicans: The Anglican Church is a global denomination that originated in England during the Protestant Reformation. Anglicans share many beliefs with other Protestant denominations, but they also maintain some unique practices and beliefs, such as the use of liturgy and the importance of the sacraments. There are around 85 million Anglicans worldwide.
How Are Christian Subgroups Identified?
Doctrinal Beliefs: Christian subgroups are often identified by their doctrinal beliefs, which can differ widely from one another. For example, some Christian subgroups may prioritize the authority of the Bible, while others may place more emphasis on tradition and the teachings of the Church.
Worship Practices: The way in which Christian subgroups worship is another factor that can be used to identify them. For example, some Christian subgroups may prefer a more formal, liturgical style of worship, while others may prioritize more contemporary and informal worship.
Leadership Structure: Christian subgroups can also be identified by their leadership structures. For example, some Christian subgroups may have a hierarchical leadership structure with bishops and other clergy, while others may have a more democratic or decentralized leadership structure.
Historical Context: The historical context in which a Christian subgroup emerged can also be a factor in identifying it. For example, some Christian subgroups may have emerged in response to specific historical events or cultural movements, such as the Protestant Reformation.
Geographical Location: Finally, geographical location can also be a factor in identifying Christian subgroups. Certain subgroups may be more prevalent in certain regions or countries, while others may have a more global presence.
Doctrinal Differences
Creeds: Differences in beliefs about key theological concepts such as the nature of God, the role of Jesus Christ, and the nature of salvation can lead to the formation of Christian subgroups. For example, the Nicene Creed, adopted in 325 CE, is a statement of faith that is shared by most mainstream Christian denominations.
Sacraments: Differences in sacramental practices, such as baptism and the Eucharist, can also contribute to the formation of Christian subgroups. For example, some groups practice infant baptism, while others believe in adult baptism.
Church governance: Differences in how the church is organized and governed can also lead to the formation of subgroups. For example, some churches have a hierarchical structure with a centralized authority, while others have a more decentralized structure with greater autonomy for individual congregations.
Why Do Christian Subgroups Exist?
Divergent interpretations of scripture: Different Christian subgroups may have different interpretations of the same biblical text, leading to disagreements and the formation of separate groups.
Geographic and cultural factors: The cultural and geographic context in which Christianity was introduced to a region can influence the development of specific subgroups, as different traditions and practices are adapted to local customs and beliefs.
Leadership and authority: The role and authority of leaders within Christian communities can play a significant role in the formation of subgroups. Disagreements over leadership and authority can lead to the formation of separate groups.
Historical events: Historical events, such as the Protestant Reformation, have led to significant changes within Christianity and the emergence of new subgroups as a result of theological and ideological disagreements.
Social and political movements: Social and political movements can also influence the development of Christian subgroups, as individuals with shared beliefs and values organize themselves around particular causes or issues.
Disagreements over Doctrine and Practice
Doctrine and practice are two major areas where Christian groups may have disagreements, which can lead to the formation of subgroups. These disagreements can range from minor differences in interpretation to major doctrinal or theological disputes.
One example of such disagreements is the issue of the interpretation of the Bible. Different groups may have varying opinions on the meaning of certain passages or the overall message of the Bible, leading to differing beliefs and practices.
Another example is the interpretation of sacraments or religious practices. For instance, some groups may believe in the importance of baptism, while others may consider it a less significant aspect of their faith.
Disputes over the role of clergy, the structure of church hierarchy, and the role of women in the church are other areas that have led to disagreements and the formation of subgroups.
Desire for Autonomy and Independence
The desire for autonomy and independence is an innate human need. It is the need to be self-sufficient and make decisions on our own without anyone’s interference. As social beings, we often find ourselves in situations where we have to work with others or depend on them for various reasons. However, our desire for autonomy and independence often makes us crave a sense of control over our lives.
This desire is evident in our daily lives, from the decisions we make to the choices we make in our careers and relationships. For example, many people prefer to start their own businesses instead of working for others to have more control over their work and lives.
The desire for autonomy and independence is also evident in our education systems. Some students prefer to take online classes because they offer more flexibility and independence in learning compared to traditional classroom settings. Similarly, some parents choose to homeschool their children because they want to have more control over their children’s education and development.
- Self-sufficiency is a major driver of the desire for autonomy and independence.
- Many people crave a sense of control over their lives and decisions.
- The desire for autonomy is often evident in career and educational choices.
- Online classes and homeschooling are examples of how autonomy is valued in education.
- The desire for autonomy and independence can sometimes lead to conflicts with others who may have different opinions or goals.
However, the desire for autonomy and independence can sometimes lead to conflicts with others who may have different opinions or goals. In relationships, for example, conflicts may arise when one partner desires more autonomy than the other. This can result in disagreements over decision-making and responsibility-sharing, leading to relationship breakdowns.
Overall, the desire for autonomy and independence is a natural human need. It is essential for individuals to feel in control of their lives and decisions. However, it is also important to recognize that our desire for autonomy and independence can sometimes lead to conflicts with others. Finding a balance between individual autonomy and the need to work with others is key to living a fulfilling and successful life.
Cultural and Social Factors
It is no secret that cultural and social factors play a major role in shaping our desires, beliefs, and actions. When it comes to autonomy and independence, these factors can have a significant impact on our willingness to pursue these goals. For instance, cultures that prioritize collectivism over individualism may view autonomy and independence as selfish or unnecessary, and instead, emphasize the importance of maintaining strong relationships with family and community. However, cultures that place a higher value on individualism may view autonomy and independence as essential for personal growth and development.
Similarly, social factors such as family dynamics and peer pressure can also influence our desire for autonomy and independence. For example, individuals who come from families that value conformity and obedience may struggle with the idea of asserting their independence, fearing that it may strain their relationship with their family. On the other hand, individuals who have a strong support system of peers who value independence may feel more encouraged to pursue their own goals and desires.
Moreover, social factors such as gender and socioeconomic status can also impact our desire for autonomy and independence. Research has shown that women and individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are often faced with more obstacles to achieving autonomy and independence, due to systemic barriers and discrimination. However, it is important to note that these factors do not determine an individual’s desire for autonomy and independence, as each person’s experience is unique and multifaceted.
- Peer Pressure: Having a support system of peers who value independence can positively influence one’s desire for autonomy.
- Gender: Women may face more obstacles to achieving autonomy and independence due to systemic barriers and discrimination.
- Socioeconomic Status: Individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may face more barriers to achieving autonomy and independence.
- Family Dynamics: Family values of conformity and obedience can make it challenging for individuals to assert their independence.
- Cultural Values: Cultures that prioritize individualism may place a higher value on autonomy and independence, while collectivist cultures may view these goals as unnecessary or selfish.
In conclusion, while the desire for autonomy and independence is a universal human need, cultural and social factors can impact the extent to which individuals are willing or able to pursue these goals. By understanding these factors, we can work towards creating a more equitable and supportive society that allows all individuals to achieve their full potential.
How Do Christian Subgroups Compare to Each Other?
Christianity is one of the world’s largest religions, with many subgroups that have developed unique beliefs and practices. These subgroups are often categorized by denomination, with some of the largest including Catholicism, Protestantism, and Eastern Orthodoxy. But how do these subgroups compare to each other?
Doctrine: One of the most significant differences between Christian subgroups is their beliefs and teachings. For example, Catholics believe in the concept of purgatory, while Protestants reject it as a non-biblical concept. Eastern Orthodoxy places more emphasis on mystical theology than Western Christianity.
Worship: Christian subgroups also differ in their worship styles. For example, Catholicism places a strong emphasis on ritual, while many Protestant denominations prefer more informal worship styles. Eastern Orthodoxy has a highly liturgical style of worship that includes the use of icons and incense.
Leadership: The structure of leadership within Christian subgroups also varies. Catholicism has a hierarchical structure with the Pope as the ultimate authority. In contrast, many Protestant denominations have a more democratic structure, with decisions made by a council or committee.
Morality: Christian subgroups also have differing views on morality, including issues like abortion, homosexuality, and divorce. For example, Catholicism has a strict stance against abortion and divorce, while many Protestant denominations have a more lenient stance on these issues.
Traditions: Finally, Christian subgroups have their own unique traditions and customs. For example, many Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on January 7th, while Catholics and Protestants celebrate it on December 25th. Different subgroups also have different holidays and feasts that are unique to their traditions.
Doctrinal Differences
Doctrine | Believed by | Not believed by |
---|---|---|
Original Sin | Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists | Reformers, Unitarians, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Christian Scientists |
Predestination | Calvinists, some Lutherans, some Anglicans | Arminians, Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Wesleyans, Methodists |
Baptism | Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists, some Reformed | Reformers, Anabaptists, Baptists |
Communion | Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists | Reformers, Baptists, Quakers, Salvation Army |
Sola Scriptura | Reformers, Evangelicals | Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, Methodists, Pentecostals |
Purgatory | Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, Methodists, some Lutherans | Reformers, Evangelicals, Baptists, Pentecostals |
Christianity is not a monolithic religion, but rather it is composed of various denominations with distinct beliefs and practices. While many of these denominations share similarities in core beliefs such as the belief in one God, the divinity of Jesus, and the Holy Spirit, there are also significant doctrinal differences that separate them from one another.
Original Sin is a concept in Christian theology that refers to the belief that all humans inherit a sinful nature as a result of Adam and Eve’s disobedience to God in the Garden of Eden. While many Christian denominations, such as Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and Methodists, believe in the doctrine of original sin, some, such as Unitarians and Christian Scientists, do not.
Predestination is another contentious issue that divides Christians. The doctrine states that God has already chosen who will be saved and who will be damned, regardless of their actions or beliefs. Calvinists, some Lutherans, and some Anglicans believe in this doctrine, while others, such as Arminians and Wesleyans, reject it.
Baptism is another area of disagreement between Christians. Some denominations, such as Catholics and Methodists, practice infant baptism, while others, such as Baptists, believe that only adult believers should be baptized.
Size and Geographic Distribution
Islam is the second largest religion in the world with more than 1.8 billion followers. The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa, with Indonesia being the country with the largest Muslim population in the world. Muslims make up the majority of the population in 57 countries around the world. However, Islam is also present in many other countries, including in Europe, North and South America, and Australia.
The size of the Muslim population is important as it influences the political, economic, and social dynamics in many countries. For instance, in some countries, Muslims make up a significant proportion of the population, and their political and economic influence can be considerable. Additionally, the geographic distribution of Muslims can also have an impact on their religious practices and traditions, as well as their interactions with other religious and cultural groups.
Furthermore, the size and distribution of the Muslim population has also played a role in shaping the history of the Islamic world. The spread of Islam from its birthplace in Arabia to other parts of the world was facilitated by the movement of people and trade routes. As a result, Muslim communities were established in many different regions, each with their own unique practices and traditions.
Country | Number of Muslims (in millions) | Percentage of Population |
---|---|---|
Indonesia | 229 | 87.2% |
Pakistan | 205 | 96.4% |
Bangladesh | 156 | 90.4% |
Nigeria | 106 | 50.4% |
Egypt | 101 | 90.1% |
Iran | 84 | 99.4% |
As the table shows, some of the largest Muslim populations are concentrated in a few countries. For example, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Bangladesh account for more than 40% of the global Muslim population. However, it is important to note that Muslims are not a homogenous group, and there is significant diversity in their practices, beliefs, and cultures across different countries and regions.
What Does the Future Hold for Christian Subgroups?
With the continued growth of globalization and the increasing prominence of technology in our daily lives, it’s no surprise that the landscape of organized religion is changing rapidly. As we move further into the 21st century, it’s becoming increasingly clear that traditional Christian subgroups will need to adapt if they hope to remain relevant in the years to come. Diversity, inclusivity, and progressive values will be essential for the survival of Christian subgroups as they navigate the complexities of the modern world.
One major factor that will shape the future of Christian subgroups is the continued growth of the internet and social media. As younger generations become more technologically savvy, they’re increasingly turning to online platforms to explore their spirituality and connect with like-minded individuals. This means that Christian subgroups will need to invest more time and resources into building an online presence and engaging with their followers through social media. Adaptation to new forms of communication and outreach will be key in maintaining a vibrant and engaged community of believers.
Another major challenge that Christian subgroups will face in the coming years is the need to stay relevant in an increasingly diverse and multicultural society. As the world becomes more connected, it’s becoming more and more difficult to maintain a homogenous group of believers who share the same values and beliefs. In order to thrive, Christian subgroups will need to embrace inclusivity and recognize the value of diversity within their communities. This means actively reaching out to individuals from different backgrounds and perspectives, and making a concerted effort to welcome them into the fold.
Continued Fragmentation and Proliferation
Despite the need for greater inclusivity and adaptability, it’s likely that Christian subgroups will continue to fragment and proliferate in the years to come. As different groups gravitate towards different interpretations of scripture and theological doctrines, it’s becoming increasingly difficult to maintain a unified Christian identity. This fragmentation is likely to accelerate in the coming years, as different groups seek to differentiate themselves from one another and cater to niche audiences.
At the same time, we can expect to see the continued proliferation of Christian subgroups as new movements emerge and gain traction. This is in part due to the growth of the internet and social media, which makes it easier than ever for individuals to form communities around shared beliefs and interests. As these communities grow and become more organized, they may eventually develop into formalized Christian subgroups with their own unique identities and values.
Overall, the future of Christian subgroups is likely to be characterized by a delicate balancing act between unity and diversity. While it’s important for these subgroups to maintain a sense of shared identity and purpose, they must also be willing to adapt to changing times and embrace new voices and perspectives. Only by striking this balance can Christian subgroups hope to remain relevant and vibrant in the years to come.
Potential for Dialogue and Reconciliation
While fragmentation and proliferation may be dominant trends in the future of Christian subgroups, there is also a potential for dialogue and reconciliation among these groups. As Christians confront the challenges of a rapidly changing world, there is a growing recognition that they need to work together to address shared problems and concerns.
One area where Christian subgroups could come together is in the realm of social justice. While different groups may have different priorities and strategies for addressing social issues, there is a common goal of promoting human dignity and welfare. By working together on issues such as poverty, racism, and inequality, Christian subgroups could create a powerful voice for change.
Another area where Christian subgroups could collaborate is in interfaith dialogue. As the world becomes increasingly diverse and interconnected, it’s more important than ever for Christians to engage with people of other faiths and learn from their perspectives. By engaging in respectful and open-minded dialogue with other faith communities, Christian subgroups could deepen their own understanding of their faith and build bridges of understanding and cooperation across different religious traditions.
Frequently Asked Questions
Questions about Christian Subgroups
What are the different Christian subgroups?
How many Christian subgroups are there?
It’s difficult to give an exact number, as there are countless subgroups and denominations within Christianity, each with its own distinctive beliefs and practices. Some estimates suggest there are thousands of different Christian subgroups around the world.
What are some examples of Christian subgroups that are growing in popularity?
Some Christian subgroups that are growing in popularity include Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement, and nondenominational churches. These subgroups tend to emphasize spiritual experiences and a personal relationship with Jesus Christ.
How do Christian subgroups differ from one another?
Christian subgroups differ from one another in terms of their beliefs, practices, and traditions. Some differences may be relatively minor, while others may be more significant. For example, some subgroups may have different interpretations of key doctrines, while others may have different styles of worship.
What are some challenges facing Christian subgroups today?
Some challenges facing Christian subgroups today include declining membership, changing cultural attitudes toward religion, and increasing diversity and pluralism. Christian subgroups must navigate these challenges while remaining true to their core beliefs and values.
How can Christian subgroups work together despite their differences?
Christian subgroups can work together by focusing on their shared values and goals, such as promoting social justice, building community, and spreading the Gospel. They can also engage in respectful and open-minded dialogue to better understand one another’s perspectives and find areas of common ground.